Plato Essay Essay Example for Free

Plato Essay Essay 1. a) Explain how Plato’s epistemological assumptions shape his metaphysics (Why does he think that there must be Forms? Hint: Plato says (in effect): â€Å"Since knowledge is certain, therefore the objects of knowledge must be unchanging. †). b) Define Plato’s Forms and present the theory of Forms by explaining the â€Å"divided line. † (You can use the visual image, but explain it. ) Plato was extremely devoted in answering the sophists’ skepticism about reason and morality. To do so, he spent more time than any philosopher before him studying knowledge, or epistemology. He realized that to answer the sophists’ skepticism he had to first solve the three main problems that earlier philosophers had left behind; the problems of change, the â€Å"one† and the â€Å"many†, and the problem between appearance and reality. Plato started where Heraclitus, who said that everything is changing, and Parmenides, who said that nothing ever changes, left off. He said that both philosophers were correct in their assumptions, for they were talking about different types of objects. Heraclitus is correct in terms of the sensible realm; it obviously exists, and is a flux that conforms to the â€Å"measures† as he suggested. Parmenides was correct in terms of the intelligible realm. Plato thought that beyond the world of physical objects in space and time is another world that is nonphysical, non-spatial, and non-temporal. He called this the world of ideai, or forms. These forms are nonphysical, non-spatial, non-temporal objects of thought that are more real than anything else. Whenever we are thinking, according to Plato, what we are thinking about is a form. For example, a triangle drawn on the board in class, no matter how perfect and real it may appear is merely a copy of the form of triangle; a plane figure enclosed by three straight lines. It is like a triangle and looking at it helps us think of the real triangle, but it only relates, or â€Å"participates† in Plato’s terms, to its’ true form. This theory applies to the entire sensible realm because everything changes and nothing stays exactly what it is. In the world of forms, however, everything is always what it is and never another thing. Plato believed that because the world of forms is Parmenidean, or eternal and unchanging, it is therefore possible for us to know it. To explain his theory of forms in depth, Plato used the image of the â€Å"divided line†. Take a line and divide it into two unequal parts, one part representing the physical world and one representing the world of forms. Then, subdivide these two parts in the same ratio, creating two sub-parts of the physical world (call them A and B) and two of the world of forms (call them C and D). Plato says let the first, or lowest, section of the physical world (A) stand for images, such as shadows or reflections. Let the second section of the physical world (B) stand for the actual objects that cast these shadows, like trees, humans, or desks. In the world of forms, Plato continues, let the first section (C) stand for the lower forms, or the forms of the objects in section B. The second section in the world of forms, the highest section of all, (D) then stands for the higher forms, or the science of first principles; the knowledge that, if possessed, would prove the basic assumptions of the special sciences. Plato believed that the nearer we are to the base of the divided line (A), the more conditioned our knowledge is. We can move up the line through dialectic, a process of questions and answer that utilizes hypothesis, criticism, and revision to move nearer to unconditioned knowledge. The higher we climb via this dialectic, the more we rid ourselves of conditions and the better we grasp the knowledge of the non-material abstract forms (D). According to Plato, these are the forms that possess the highest and most fundamental kind of reality. 2. a) How does the Form Man explain the existence of the many individual men? b) What is the nature of man and how is the individual man analogous to the state? c) What is virtue or justice in man and in the state? Plato’s theory of Forms led him to many assumptions, one of the most important of which is his view on the form of â€Å"man† and his relation to the state. He understood that no one man has ever been perfect and that each man participates in the form â€Å"man† to different degrees. Individual men are adequate copies of the true form of â€Å"man†. Plato believed that the men who participate in the form more fully are going to more real, and therefore  better, then the men who participate less. This is better explained by his philosophy of the nature of man and his analogous relationship to the state. Plato recognized the nature of man as a psyche, or soul, that was grouped into three main parts. Each of these three parts have motions proper to them that he believed, if harmonized, would lead to eudaimonia, a total well-being. The first, and lowest, part of the soul he called the appetites. The highest part Plato called reason. The third part, between appetite and reason, he called spirit. He saw the state as having three main parts as well, each corresponding to one of the three parts of the human psyche. Every state needs a governing body, whether kings or congress, so this will be the first part. The second is reserved for the essential producing class, which includes merchants, industrial workers, agriculturists, and so on. Third, Plato held that every state needs a group, between the governing and producing classes, to maintain the state against enemies; this is the guardian group. The analogy relates the producing class to appetite in the individual, the governing class to reason, and the guardians to spirit. Plato wasn’t just satisfied with this, he wanted to know the virtues of these classes, in other words, he wanted to know what each could contribute best. Like organs in an organism’s body, Plato believed each part of the soul and state have a particular role to play in the whole; they were not discrete and complete in themselves. He thought that the function of the members of the producing class was to provide themselves and the nonproductive classes with the necessities of life, such as food, shelter, and clothing. He realized that if everybody were to be provided for sufficiently, some of the producers would have to put up with having less than others. They would have to be ready to â€Å"restrict one’s own consumption for the sake of achieving some sort of balance in the state as a whole†, thus their virtue is moderation or as Plato called it, temperance (Jones 169). The guardians, who make up the second class, must be courageous when defending the state against its enemies, thus their virtue is courage. The governors make the highest decisions in the state. They determine war or peace, educational and economic policies, and so on. To make correct decisions they require knowledge; this is their virtue. A state in which each class is performing its function is just state. Only when the rulers are making wise decisions that are executed with courage and loyalty by the guardians, and the rest of the population is exercising some restraint in its pursuit of material well being, will the citizens of the state be happy. Since the state’s three classes exactly correspond to the three parts of the soul, we are able to understand what Plato took to be their respective virtues. Just like in the state, every individual has producing part that keeps them â€Å"alive and active, a rational part that is intended to guide and direct the energy produced by the body, and a spirited part that is intended to help keep the body in order† (Jones 169). Just as the functions of the soul correspond to the state, so do its virtues. A virtuous man is temperate in satisfying his various appetites and lives a life of reason that is supported by his spirited elements. 3. a) Use the allegory of the cave to illustrate Plato’s political views. In doing so, you should b) explain how the theory of forms supports Plato’s favored form of Aristocracy (to begin with, recall the relation between individual men and the Form of man) and c) explain how the theory of Forms grounds his criticism and rejection of democracy (where in â€Å"the cave† are the Athenian democrats?where are they on the divided line? ) As we have seen, Plato uses myths and methods such as the divided line to explain his views on certain things; this is the case, too, with his views on politics. To understand these views we must examine his allegory of the cave. He said to imagine there was men in a dark cave that were chained by their necks and ankles in such a fashion that they could not move their legs or necks and could only see what was in front of them. These men had been in this cave since childhood. Higher up behind them is a fire that is separated from the prisoners by a sort of puppet-show screen. This fire and screen were used by people carrying various artificial objects, such as figures of men, animals, and other materials, to project the shadows of these objects onto the stone in front of the chained men. It was so dark that these prisoners had no clue they were not alone and if they spoke to each other, they assumed they were speaking with the projected images. Plato goes on to say, imagine if one of them were set free and forced up the steep ascent into the sunlight. He would realize that what he experienced in the cave was not as real as what actually existed. Nature and the sun would enlighten this man and therefore he would gain true knowledge of the world as it is. Plato reasoned that these men, the ones who make it out of the cave, are the men who should rule the rest. His politics were based on man being a social animal, with desires, not only for sleeping or drinking, but communicating with his fellow men in the community. Therefore, he thought communal life is good and all other human goods depend on it for any sufficient satisfaction; an individual, who is really part of the larger state, is neither complete nor himself in isolation. If the good life for the individual is possible only by community, then there must be some sort of government to give direction to the numbers of men and women who live and work together. Plato believed that the few who are wise and good should rule the many. As his theory of Forms suggests, all men participate to the form of man to different degrees. He thought that the few men who participate at the highest levels of the form, the most knowledgeable that have exited the cave and been enlightened, are the ones best for ruling, and doing so rationally; the many are lacking in knowledge and virtue. Plato favored an Aristocracy ruled by these knowledgeable philosopher-kings who would impose the temperance on the producers through selective education and controlled propaganda. Each person, in his view, would find their happiness by playing the part in the state that their degree of participation to the form of man best suited them for. Plato therefore criticized democracy because instead of philosopher-kings who have true knowledge, the rulers are chosen on irrelevant grounds. The art of ruling, which he thought to determine what is best, became in democracy the art of appealing to the masses with flattery. Plato believed that in a democracy it is impossible to exit the cave or rise to the highest section of the divided line because it is powered by rhetoric. Rhetoric works at the level of opinion and only invokes belief by emotional mean, rather than operating at the level of knowledge, where analyzing the forms allows us to discover the truth.

Its Time to Bring Back Religion and School Prayer in Public Schools Es

     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Benjamin Franklin once declared, "Only a virtuous people are capable of freedom. As a nation becomes more corrupt and vicious they have more need of masters." In nineteen sixty-two the Supreme Court of the United States pronounced that a prayer recited in the public school was abusing our freedoms . In the court's opinion this was an act in violation to the first amendment, which calls for "a separation of church and state.'' This ruling was later extended to include the use of the Bible as well. A Supreme Court Justice, Hugo Black, put it in this often quoted statement "Neither a state or the Federal government can set up a church. Nor can pass laws that aid one religion, all religions, or prefer one religion over another. No tax in any amount, large or small, can be levied to support any religious activities or institutions whatever they may be called, or whatever form they may adapt to teach or practice religion." (686)    This issue,"separation of church and state," is a cloudy topic in the eyes of the modern world, but in reality the only gray clouds are primarily a result of ignorance of the original intent of the Founding Fathers who put the phrase in the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution.    From the beginning of American government, state and legal papers, such as the Northwest Ordinance and state constitutions, were threaded with religion. In addition, many of the more eminent men who signed the Constitution, Bill of Rights, and other important documents clarified their intent. John Witherspoon, as quoted by David Barton in The Works of John Witherspoon, said: " What follows from this? That he is the best friend to American Liberty, who is most sincere and active in pro... ... capable of freedom.    Works Cited Barton, David. Movie: Education and the Founding Fathers. Aledo, Texas: Wall Builders, 1991. Evans, Stanton.M.,"The Myth of Seperation: What Wall?", January, 1995, n. pag. Researcher.sirs.com.WWW. Internet <http://researcher.sirs.com/cgi-bin+sep+of+church+and+state>October 13, 1998. Parry, Skousen and Andres W. Allison. The Real George Washington. Washington, D.C. U.S., National Center for Constitutional Studies,1991. Skousen, Cleon, W. The Making of America. Washington D.C.:National Center of Constitutional Studis, 1986. Taylor, Earl, Jr. Letter to American Citizens.1 Oct, 1998. letter not documented. Ed. Earl Taylor. Malta, Idaho: National Center for Constitutional Studies, 1998. Taylor, Earl. "No Title" None given. 1, Oct. 1981 1A.< http://www.xmission.com/>/~NCCS-20 Oct. 1998.

Business Explore

The rise of integrated reporting and increased investor focus on extra-financial factors are part of a new global attitude toward business. One example of this trend is provided by research from Ceres, an advocacy organization for sustainability leadership, into the evolution of sustainability practice in companies (Ceres, 2014; Ceres & Ramani, 2015). To understand what makes some companies more useful when it comes to delivering sustainability performance without sacrificing mission, Ceres focused its studies on how boards and directors provide oversight for sustainability. Their research discovered that by making both executives and governing boards formally accountable for sustainability performance, organizations can face the increasing pressure to deliver on sustainability and maintain social mission. Governance practices can provide a framework for building mission into the DNA of organizations. To take this inquiry further, more research is needed to capture current learning across sectors and to identify mission-supportive governance practice as it evolves. Sharing this information with budding social entrepreneurs, MBA students and investors, to increase their understanding of governance as a solution to mission challenges, could help develop more sophisticated attitudes toward the role of governance across the sector. Additionally, more research into Mission monitoring that makes use of metrics and enables governing boards and managers to evaluate mission alongside financial performance and deliver oversight and accountability in both areas is needed. Investor engagement is another area where more research could be beneficial. As the sector continues to expand into the mainstream, new investors will be joining the boards of growing social entrepreneurships and exerting their influence. More work on how the leaders of these organizations can create proactive strategies to identify investors who align with the mission and negotiate favorable terms for mission preservation would be welcome. More research into how investor behavior, and the impact that has on mission preservation, could yield clues as to why so many businesses find mission pushed to the margins as they grow. There is also room for developing practical resources to help social entrepreneurships establish effective investor engagement and communication strategies. As the sector matures, finding the right people remains challenging for organizations in the hectic scaling stage. More extensive use of skills matrices—and matrices developed especially for mission-driven businesses—could help. A specialist referral service, online skills bank or recruiting agency could be established to connect organizations with appropriate candidates.

The Church And Alcohol Abuse - 905 Words

The Church and Alcohol Abuse The Church s Teaching on the Use and Abuse of Alcohol The Scriptures and the practice of the Church see alcohol as a gift of God. The Psalms praise God who has given us wine to gladden our hearts, (Ps. 104,15) and the Gospel tells of Jesus providing wine for the wedding celebration at Cana. Every Sunday we gather at the altar where at Jesus’ command we offer and receive wine that has become his blood by the power of the Holy Spirit. The Scriptures and the Church are also very straight-forward about the abuse of alcohol. St. Paul made it clear in his instructions to the community at Corinth that â€Å"drunkards†¦will not inherit the Kingdom of God.† (1 Cor. 6,10) Instead, we are called â€Å"to live sober, upright and†¦show more content†¦Alcohol in Today’s Society In our country the inappropriate use and abuse of alcohol has become a normal part of the social scene. It begins in our high schools and even our middle schools where the problem is often phrased by parents and school authorities in the question, â€Å"Should we let the students drink?† Unfortunately, the real issue all too often is intoxication. On college campuses across the nation, Catholic and secular, the problem of alcohol abuse has become so epidemic that it is a major concern for college administrations. Apart from the fact that regular bouts of alcohol abuse can block personal growth and intellectual development, such abuse can contribute to many serious but preventable problems: traffic accidents, sexual harassment and date rape, peer violence, unintended pregnancies, and the early development of alcoholism. The problems and consequences of alcohol abuse are not limited to the young; they pervade our whole society. According to a national report, one in ten persons is an alcohol abuser, and one in four is affected by the abuse of alcohol in their own families. National studies show that Wisconsin has too often been among those states which have the highest rates of binge drinking and chronic drinking. We do not need a survey to know that driving cars, boats and snowmobiles while under the influence is a seriousShow MoreRelatedAddiction And Substance Abuse Is A Serious Problem Among Teenagers806 Words   |  4 PagesAddiction and substance abuse is a serious problem among teenagers. Teenagers begin abusing drugs because of peer pressure, or abuse in their life. Any type of drugs can be abused including over the counter medications. Since teenager’s brain is still growing any type of substance abuse can cause serious harm. The most abused drug is alcohol. Alcohol has a differe nt effect the brain of teenagers different than that of adults. Children raised in a religious family, with religious friends areRead MoreDrugs and Alcohol1682 Words   |  7 PagesMethod 3 References 4 Background Drugs and alcohol is a major social issue (J. 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